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[…] Around 1828, Thomas “Daddy” Rice developed a routine in which he blackened his face, dressed in old clothes, and sang and danced in imitation of a decrepit old black man. Rice released the lyrics to the song “Jump, Jim Crow” in 1830. In the 1880s, the term “Jim Crow” (now a mocking slang for a black man) became widely used as a reference to practices, laws, or institutions that result from or sanction the physical separation of blacks and whites. (1) […] The NAACP sought out cases that violated the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to set legal precedents and ultimately guarantee the constitutional rights of African Americans. One of the first victories was Buchanan v. Warley, a residential segregation case in Louisville, Kentucky. Moorfield Storey, the first president of the NAACP and a constitutional lawyer, argued the case before the U.S. Supreme Court in April 1917. The court overturned the Kentucky Court of Appeals` decision and ruled that the Louisville order violated the Fourteenth Amendment.

As a result of the decision, whites resorted to private restrictive agreements in which landlords agreed to sell or rent only to whites. The Supreme Court explained this practice in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948). Buchanan v. Warley was quoted in the Brown decision to question the legality of separate public schools. An order in Montgomery, Alabama, forced black residents to sit next to whites on city buses. At the time, the standard was “separate but equal,” but the actual separation practiced by Montgomery City Lines was hardly the same. Montgomery bus operators should divide their buses into two sections: white at the front and black at the rear. As more and more whites ascended, it was believed that the white section extended backwards. On paper, the bus company`s policy was that the middle of the bus became the border when all the seats further back were occupied. Nevertheless, this was not the daily reality. In the early 1950s, a white man never had to stand on a Montgomery bus.

In addition, it often happened that blacks who boarded the bus were forced to stand in the back when all seats were occupied, even if seats were available in the white area. In the early 20th century, millions of blacks migrating from the rural South to industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest were forced to settle in neighborhoods designated by local zoning ordinances, restrictive agreements, and violence. Racially restrictive agreements legally prohibited African Americans from owning, renting, or occupying homes in certain communities, and provided a legal framework for the systematic segregation of people of color until the late 1940s. Long after the Supreme Court ruled that racial alliances were unenforceable, they continued to be used as strong social cues to exclude people of color. Charles Hamilton Houston was the chief strategist of the NAACP legal campaign that culminated in the Brown decision. He graduated from Amherst College in 1915. In 1923, he became the first African-American to earn a Juris Doctor degree from Harvard, where he studied with Felix Frankfurter. Houston occasionally practiced as a partner at Houston & Houston, the famous law firm his father founded in 1892. He joined Howard University Law School in 1924 and was appointed associate dean in 1929. By 1932, he had transformed the law school from a part-time evening school into a fully accredited institution that trained an executive of civil rights lawyers. In 1935, the NAACP hired Houston as its first full-time special counsel and established the legal department under his supervision.

Although he returned to private practice in 1938, Houston advised the NAACP until his death on April 22, 1950. The legal system was stacked against black citizens, with former Confederate soldiers working as police officers and judges, making it difficult for African Americans to win lawsuits and ensure they were subject to the black code. Beginning in 1909, a small group of activists organized and founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). They fought a long struggle to eliminate racial discrimination and segregation from American life. In the mid-twentieth century, they focused on legal challenges to segregation in public schools.